Bangladesh। Map, History, Population, Culture, Health & Facts

Bangladesh, officially known as the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, is a country located in South Asia. With a population of around 170 million people spread over 148,460 square kilometers (57,320 square miles), it ranks as the eighth-most populous and one of the most densely populated countries in the world. The country is bordered by India to the north, west, and east, and by Myanmar to the southeast, with the Bay of Bengal along its southern coastline.

It is geographically separated from Bhutan and Nepal by the Siliguri Corridor and from China by the Indian state of Sikkim. Dhaka, its capital and largest city, serves as the political, economic, and cultural hub, while Chittagong, the second-largest city, operates the country’s busiest port. Bengali is the official language, though Bangladeshi English is also used for governmental purposes.

Historically, Bangladesh is part of the Bengal region, which was divided in 1947 during the Partition of British India. The eastern part became East Pakistan, a part of the newly formed Dominion of Pakistan, but after years of political and cultural struggles, Bangladesh gained independence in 1971 following a bloody war. Ancient Bengal, known as Gangaridai, was a center of pre-Islamic kingdoms before becoming a major power during the Muslim conquest in 1204, leading to the rise of the Bengal Sultanate and later the prosperous Mughal Bengal.

The British colonization of Bengal began after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and the region’s modern-day borders were set by the Radcliffe Line during the partition of 1947. East Bengal became East Pakistan in 1947, and the events of the Bengali Language Movement in 1952, combined with growing tensions between East and West Pakistan, led to the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.

The newly independent Bangladesh established a constitutionally secular state in 1972, though Islam was declared the state religion in 1988. However, the Bangladesh Supreme Court reaffirmed secularism as a core constitutional principle in 2010. Today, Bangladesh is declared a socialist state by its constitution. It is a middle power in the Indo-Pacific region, with the fifth-most spoken native language globally, the third-largest Muslim-majority population, and the second-largest economy in South Asia. Bangladesh also has the third-largest military in the region and is the largest contributor to United Nations peacekeeping forces.

Politically, Bangladesh is a unitary parliamentary republic operating under the Westminster system. The population is almost entirely Bengali, comprising around 99% of the country’s people. Administratively, the country is divided into eight divisions, 64 districts, and 495 subdistricts. Bangladesh is home to the Sundarbans, the world’s largest mangrove forest, and hosts a large refugee population, primarily due to the Rohingya crisis.

The country continues to face challenges such as corruption, political instability, overpopulation, and the impacts of climate change. Bangladesh has been a strong advocate for addressing climate vulnerabilities, having chaired the Climate Vulnerable Forum twice, and plays an active role in regional and global organizations such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and the Commonwealth of Nations.

Etymology of Bangladesh

The name “Bangladesh” translates to “Bengali country” and has its roots in the early 20th century. The term gained prominence through Bengali patriotic songs, such as Rabindranath Tagore’s Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy (1905) and Kazi Nazrul Islam’s Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo (1932). Bengali nationalists began using the term in political rallies in East Pakistan during the 1950s.

The word “Bangla” refers to both the Bengal region and the Bengali language. Its origins are debated, with some theories suggesting connections to a Bronze Age proto-Dravidian tribe and others to the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom. The earliest known usage of “Bangla” appears in the Nesari plate from 805 AD, and the term “Vangala Desa” is found in 11th-century South Indian records. It gained official recognition during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century, when Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah declared himself the first “Shah of Bangala” in 1342.

During the Islamic period, the name “Bangāl” became commonly used for the region. The 16th-century historian Abu’l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, in his Ain-i-Akbari, explains that the suffix “al” was added because ancient rajahs in the land used to build mounds of earth called “al” in the lowlands at the foot of hills. This explanation is also noted in Ghulam Husain Salim’s Riyaz-us-Salatin.

The suffix “Desh” is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, meaning “land” or “country.” Therefore, “Bangladesh” literally means “Land of Bengal” or “Country of Bengal

Birth History of Bangladesh

The history of Bangladesh stretches back over four thousand years to the Chalcolithic period. Early on, the region was ruled by Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms and empires. Islam arrived in the 8th century and became dominant by the early 13th century through conquests and missionary work. The Bengal Sultanate, founded in the 14th century, brought economic prosperity and military strength to the region. Bengal later became part of the Mughal Empire, which, according to historian C. A. Bayly, was likely its wealthiest province.

After the Mughal Empire’s decline in the early 1700s, Bengal was semi-independent under the Nawabs of Bengal and was eventually conquered by the British East India Company following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. During British rule, Bengal played a key role in the Industrial Revolution but also experienced deindustrialization.

In 1947, the borders of modern Bangladesh were drawn during the Partition of India, making it East Pakistan within Pakistan. Bangladesh gained independence in March 1971 after the Bangladesh Liberation War, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.

Since independence, Bangladesh has faced political instability and economic challenges but has also achieved significant economic growth. The country has seen military coups, authoritarian rule, and a return to democracy in the 1990s, with power alternating between the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party. In recent years, Bangladesh has become one of the world’s fastest-growing economies, largely due to its garment industry and infrastructure development. Despite progress, issues like political instability, human rights concerns, and climate change continue to impact the country.

The poverty rate has dropped significantly, from 80% in 1971 to 13% in 2021. Bangladesh now stands as the second-largest economy in South Asia and leads in building green factories, having the largest number of certified green factories globally in 2023. In January 2024, the Awami League, led by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, won a fourth consecutive term, but Hasina was forced to resign and flee to India in August 2024 following nationwide protests. An interim government was formed with Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus as Chief Advisor.

Geography

Bangladesh is located in South Asia, bordered mostly by India and sharing a small border with Myanmar to the southeast. It is close to Nepal, Bhutan, and China. The country is divided into three main regions: the fertile Ganges Delta, the Madhupur and Barind plateaus in the northwest and central areas, and evergreen hill ranges in the northeast and southeast.

The Ganges Delta, the largest river delta in the world, is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (locally called Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna rivers. These rivers flow into the Bay of Bengal. Known as the “Land of Rivers,” Bangladesh has over 57 trans-boundary rivers, making water issues complex as it depends on India for many of its river resources.

Most of Bangladesh is flat and fertile, with land typically less than 12 meters (39 feet) above sea level. About 10% of the land would be flooded with a 1-meter (3.3 feet) rise in sea level. The country has 17% forest cover and 12% hill systems. The haor wetlands are important for global environmental science. The highest point in Bangladesh is Saka Haphong near the Myanmar border, at 1,064 meters (3,491 feet), although Keokradong and Tazing Dong were previously considered the highest.

Bangladesh’s Climate

Bangladesh, located on the Tropic of Cancer, has a tropical climate with mild winters from October to March and hot, humid summers from March to June. The country has never recorded temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F), with the coldest being 1.1 °C (34.0 °F) in Dinajpur on February 3, 1905. The monsoon season, from June to October, is warm and humid, bringing most of the country’s rainfall.

Natural disasters, including floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores, occur nearly every year, exacerbated by deforestation, soil degradation, and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, with the 1991 cyclone causing around 140,000 deaths. In September 1998, severe flooding submerged two-thirds of the country and resulted in approximately 1,000 deaths.

Efforts in disaster risk reduction have helped reduce human casualties and economic damage over the years. The 2007 South Asian floods displaced five million people and caused about 500 deaths.

Climate change

Bangladesh is considered one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world. Over the past century, 508 cyclones have affected the Bay of Bengal region, with 17% of these making landfall in Bangladesh. As the climate changes, increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and more frequent tropical cyclones are expected to have severe impacts on agriculture, water and food security, human health, and housing. It is projected that a three-foot rise in sea levels by 2050 could flood about 20% of the country and displace over 30 million people. To address this threat, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 has been launched to help manage and mitigate the impacts of sea level rise.

Biodiversity

Bangladesh, located in the Indomalayan realm, spans four major ecoregions: Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests, Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin rainforests, Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests, and Sundarbans mangroves. Its diverse ecology includes a long coastline, numerous rivers and wetlands, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, and fertile alluvial plains ideal for agriculture. The country’s vegetation features lush forests, with mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut, and date palm trees common in villages. Bangladesh is home to around 6,000 plant species, including 5,000 flowering plants, and has 50 wildlife sanctuaries.

The Sundarbans, the world’s largest mangrove forest, covers 6,000 square kilometers in southwestern Bangladesh and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Sylhet region in the northeast is known for its haor wetlands, while the southeastern Chittagong region features evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. Central Bangladesh includes the Sal forest, and St. Martin’s Island is the country’s only coral reef.

Bangladesh’s wildlife includes the Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, saltwater crocodile, and black panther in the Sundarbans. Northern and eastern areas host Asian elephants, hoolock gibbons, and Asian black bears. The country is also home to chital deer, black giant squirrels, and various reptiles and amphibians. It has one of the largest populations of Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins and 628 bird species.

However, deforestation and rapid urban growth have endangered wildlife and led to environmental issues, such as pollution from the textile industry and shrimp farming. While areas are protected by law, threats to wildlife persist. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act of 1995, along with initiatives like the Sundarbans tiger project and Bangladesh Bear Project, aims to address these challenges. Bangladesh ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity in 1994 and was updating its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan as of 2014.

Government and politics of Bangladesh

Bangladesh operates as a de jure representative democracy with a Westminster-style parliamentary republic and universal suffrage. The Prime Minister, who is the head of government, is appointed every five years by the President, who invites the leader of the largest party in parliament to form the government.

The government is managed by a cabinet led by the Prime Minister, supported by the Bangladesh Civil Service, which recruits based on public examinations. Ideally, the civil service is a meritocracy, though issues like a disputed quota system and political influence have reportedly affected its impartiality.

The President of Bangladesh serves as the ceremonial head of state, signs bills into law, and is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces and the chancellor of all universities. The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice of Bangladesh and includes the Supreme Court, High Court, and Appellate Divisions. Due to a shortage of judges, there is a significant backlog in the judicial system.

The unicameral parliament, known as the Jatiya Sangsad (National Parliament), consists of 350 members: 300 elected directly and 50 reserved for women. MPs are prohibited by Article 70 of the constitution from voting against their party. The Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad presides over the parliament and is second in line to the presidency. Some laws proposed by individual MPs, such as the anti-torture law, have been enacted despite party discipline. Sheikh Hasina the last (2024) elected Prime minister in Bangladesh.

Bangladesh Administrative Division

Bangladesh is divided into eight regions called divisions: Barisal (officially Barishal), Chittagong (officially Chattogram), Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet.

Each division is divided into districts (zila), and there are 64 districts in total. Each district is further split into upazilas (sub-districts) or thanas. In areas with police stations, these are divided into unions, which consist of multiple villages. In city areas, police stations are split into wards and then into mahallas (neighborhoods).

There are no elected positions at the divisional or district levels; these are managed by government officials. Elections are held for chairpersons and members at the union or ward level. Since 1997, a parliamentary law reserves three out of twelve seats in each union for female candidates.

Foreign relations

Bangladesh is a middle power in global politics with a key role in the Indo-Pacific region due to its strategic location. It became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 and joined the United Nations in 1974. Bangladesh is active in multilateral diplomacy, focusing on climate change, nuclear nonproliferation, trade, and security. It helped create SAARC and is part of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Developing 8 Countries. The country supports regional trade and transport links with World Bank help and hosts the BIMSTEC headquarters.

Relations with Myanmar have been strained since the Rohingya refugee crisis began in 2016-2017. Bangladesh has been vocal in international criticism of Myanmar and advocates for the Rohingya’s return. The country has a complex relationship with India, affected by disputes over water resources and border issues, and a challenging relationship with Pakistan due to the denial of the 1971 genocide.

Bangladesh maintains strong ties with China, its largest trading partner and arms supplier, and Japan, its leading aid provider. The country also has robust relations with the Middle East, which provides a significant portion of its remittances. Bangladesh plays a leading role in global climate diplomacy through the Climate Vulnerable Forum.

Military

The Bangladesh Armed Forces, inheriting the framework of the British military, had around 250,000 active personnel in the Army and 24,000 in the Air Force and Navy in 2022. Beyond defense, the military assists in disaster relief and maintains internal security during unrest. Bangladesh has been a leading contributor to UN peacekeeping forces. The military budget was 1.3% of GDP, about $4.3 billion in 2021.

The Bangladesh Navy, one of the largest in the Bay of Bengal, operates a range of ships including frigates and submarines. The Air Force has a small fleet of multi-role aircraft. Most military equipment is sourced from China. Bangladesh and India have strengthened their military cooperation through joint exercises, high-level visits, and counter-terrorism efforts. Bangladesh plays a key role in maintaining stability in northeast India.

Strategically important, Bangladesh’s location affects its relations with China, Myanmar, and India, and its maritime interests in the Bay of Bengal. In 2002, Bangladesh and China signed a Defense Cooperation Agreement. The U.S. has been negotiating agreements with Bangladesh, and in 2019, Bangladesh ratified the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Civil society

Since colonial times, Bangladesh has had a strong civil society with various groups such as NGOs, human rights organizations, professional associations, chambers of commerce, and trade unions. The National Human Rights Commission was established in 2007. Important groups include the Centre for Law and Mediation, Odhikar, the Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety, and the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association. BRAC, the world’s largest international NGO, is based in Bangladesh. Recently, there have been concerns about the shrinking space for independent civil society.

Human rights in Bangladesh

Torture is banned by Bangladesh’s Constitution but remains widespread among security forces. The country joined the Convention against Torture in 1998 and passed its first anti-torture law in 2013, with the first conviction under this law occurring in 2020. Amnesty International has highlighted cases like Saber Hossain Chowdhury and Shahidul Alam. The Digital Security Act, criticized for its restrictions, was replaced by the Cyber Security Act in 2023, a change welcomed by the International Press Institute.

In December 2021, the U.S. Treasury imposed sanctions on Rapid Action Battalion commanders for human rights abuses. Freedom House has criticized the government for human rights violations and its crackdown on opposition and media. The country is rated “partly free” and its press freedom has declined. The Economist Intelligence Unit ranks Bangladesh as a hybrid regime. In the 2022 Global Peace Index, Bangladesh was 96th out of 163 countries. The National Human Rights Commission reports that 70% of alleged human rights abuses are by law enforcement.

LGBT rights face strong social opposition. Section 377 of the Penal Code, inherited from British colonial rule, criminalizes homosexuality. While an underground LGBT scene exists, only the Hijra community, recognized locally, is widely accepted. The Hijra community has faced issues with organized crime, including blackmail and extortion. According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, about 1% of Bangladesh’s population is estimated to be enslaved.

Corruption

Like many developing countries, corruption is a significant problem in Bangladesh. In Transparency International’s 2018 Corruption Perceptions Index, Bangladesh was ranked 146th out of 180 countries. The land administration sector was notably corrupt in 2015, with high levels of bribery also reported in education, police, and water supply sectors. The Anti-Corruption Commission, established in 2004, became active during the 2006–08 political crisis, prosecuting numerous politicians, bureaucrats, and businessmen for corruption.

Economy

Bangladesh is the second largest economy in South Asia, trailing only India. It has surpassed India and Pakistan in per capita income. Since its independence in 1971, Bangladesh has made remarkable progress, moving from one of the world’s poorest countries to a success story in development. Poverty has been halved, primary school enrollment is nearly universal, and many women have entered the workforce. The country has improved in areas like maternal and child health and has strengthened its defenses against climate change and natural disasters.

The World Bank highlights Bangladesh’s transformation as a major achievement. The country’s Human Development Index (HDI) has seen significant improvement, with only China achieving greater progress in Asia.

Chittagong is home to the busiest port on the Bay of Bengal. As of 2022, Bangladesh had the second-largest foreign-exchange reserves in South Asia, which supports its government spending despite low tax revenues. Major investments have been made in the power sector, leading to 100% electrification by 2022. The Ashrayan Project, which provides free housing to combat homelessness, is a key anti-poverty initiative.

Poverty has dramatically decreased, from 80% in 1971 to 12.9% in 2021. The literacy rate was 74.66% in 2022. The labor force is about 70 million, making it the seventh largest in the world, with an unemployment rate of 5.2% as of 2021. To attract foreign investment, the government is creating 100 special economic zones, aiming to generate 10 million jobs.

The Bangladeshi taka is the currency. The service sector makes up 51.3% of GDP and employs 39% of the workforce. Industry accounts for 35.1% of GDP and employs 20.4% of workers, while agriculture contributes 13.6% of GDP and employs 40.6% of the workforce. Bangladesh is a major producer of rice, fish, tea, fruits, vegetables, flowers, and jute, and is known for its lobster and shrimp exports.

Private sector

In Bangladesh, the private sector makes up 80% of the GDP, overshadowing state-owned companies. The economy is led by family-owned conglomerates and small to medium-sized businesses. Major publicly traded companies include Beximco, BRAC Bank, BSRM, GPH Ispat, Grameenphone, Summit Group, and Square Pharmaceuticals. The Dhaka and Chittagong Stock Exchanges are key capital markets. The telecommunications sector is growing rapidly, with 171.854 million cellphone subscribers as of January 2021. The garment industry is crucial, contributing over 80% of export earnings, while other important sectors include shipbuilding, pharmaceuticals, steel, ceramics, electronics, and leather goods. Muhammad Aziz Khan is Bangladesh’s first billionaire listed by Forbes.

Infrastructure

Since 2009, Bangladesh has undertaken several major infrastructure projects. The Padma Bridge, stretching 6.15 km, was built at a cost of $3.86 billion and is the country’s first self-financed megaproject. Other significant projects include the Dhaka Metro, an urban transit system; the Karnaphuli Tunnel, an underwater expressway in Chittagong; and elevated expressways in both Dhaka and Chittagong. Additionally, the Bangladesh Delta Plan aims to address the impacts of climate change.

Tourism

Bangladesh’s tourism industry is growing, contributing about 3.02% to the GDP. In 2019, the country earned $391 million from international tourism. It boasts three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Mosque City, the Paharpur Buddhist Ruins, and the Sundarbans, along with five tentative-list sites. Tourists can enjoy activities like angling, water skiing, river cruising, hiking, rowing, yachting, and beachgoing. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported that in 2018, the travel and tourism sector directly created 1.18 million jobs, or 1.9% of the total employment in Bangladesh. The country sees around 125,000 international visitors annually, with domestic spending making up 97.7% of the travel and tourism GDP in 2012.

Energy

Bangladesh is slowly moving towards a green economy. It has the world’s largest off-grid solar power program, which helps 20 million people. The country is also working on producing an electric car called the Palki and using biogas to make organic fertilizer.

Bangladesh has large untapped natural gas reserves, especially offshore, but it has not explored them much. This has led to a need to import LNG, which has been made worse by the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

Government-owned companies generate almost half of Bangladesh’s electricity, but private companies like Summit Group and Orion Group are becoming more important. They help generate electricity and provide machinery. Electricity production grew from 5 gigawatts in 2009 to 25.5 gigawatts in 2022, with a goal of 50 gigawatts by 2041. U.S. companies like Chevron and General Electric supply about 55% of the country’s natural gas and invest heavily in power projects. Most of the gas-fired power turbines in Bangladesh come from the U.S.

In June 2022, the government stopped buying LNG at spot prices, which helped reduce the country’s forex reserves due to high fuel imports. Bangladesh now trades LNG on futures markets.

The Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, the first nuclear power plant in Bangladesh, is expected to be finished by the end of 2023.

Demographics of Bangladesh

According to the 2022 Census, Bangladesh has a population of 165.1 million, making it the eighth most populous country globally and the most densely populated large country, with about 1,265 people per square kilometer as of 2020. The country’s fertility rate has dropped significantly from 5.5 in 1985 to 2.0 in 2020, which is below the replacement level of 2.1. Most Bangladeshis live in rural areas, with only 39% residing in cities as of 2021. The median age is around 28 years, with 26% of the population under 14 and just 5% aged 65 and older.

Bangladesh is predominantly Bengali, with Bengalis making up 99% of the population. Indigenous groups like the Chakmas, Marmas, and Santhals live in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, a region that faced unrest from 1975 to 1997 due to an autonomy movement. Despite a 1997 peace accord, the area remains militarized. The Supreme Court granted citizenship to Urdu-speaking stranded Pakistanis in 2008. Bangladesh also hosts over 700,000 Rohingya refugees, making it home to one of the largest refugee populations in the world.

Urban centres

Dhaka, the capital and largest city of Bangladesh, is divided into two city corporations: Dhaka North and Dhaka South, which manage the northern and southern parts of the city. Besides Dhaka, there are 12 city corporations in total, including Chittagong, Comilla, Khulna, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Barisal, Rangpur, Gazipur, and Narayanganj. Mayors for these city corporations are elected for five-year terms.

Bangladesh has 8 districts: Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Rangpur, Rajshahi, Khulna, Mymensingh, and Barishal. The country has 506 urban centers, with 43 cities having populations of over 100,000.

The largest cities and their populations are:

Language

In Bangladesh, Bengali is both the official and the most widely spoken language, used by over 99% of the population. Bengali features various regional dialects, including Chittagonian and Sylheti, which some linguists consider separate languages.

English, due to the country’s British colonial past, plays a significant role in the judicial and educational sectors. It is commonly spoken, widely understood, and taught as a compulsory subject in schools and universities.

Tribal languages in Bangladesh, though endangered, include Chakma (spoken by the Chakma people), Garo, Meitei, Kokborok, and Rakhine. The Santali language, spoken by the Santal people, is the most common among the Austroasiatic languages.

Urdu is spoken by stranded Pakistanis and some Old Dhaka cites, but its use is often controversial.

Religion

In 1972, Bangladesh was officially declared a secular state. Secularism is one of the country’s four main constitutional principles. The constitution guarantees freedom of religion and names Islam as the state religion. It bans religion-based politics and discrimination, ensuring equal rights for all faiths.

Islam is the largest religion in Bangladesh, followed by about 91.1% of the population. Most Bangladeshis are Bengali Muslims who practice Sunni Islam. Bangladesh is the third-most populous Muslim-majority country and has the fourth-largest Muslim population worldwide.

Before the 1947 partition of India, Hindus made up 28% of the population. During the 1971 Bangladesh War of Independence, many Hindus fled to India due to the violence by the Pakistani Army. By 1974, Hindus made up 13.5% of the population. In 2022, Hinduism is practiced by 7.9% of the population. Bengali Hindus are the second-largest religious group in the country and the third-largest Hindu community globally, after India and Nepal.

Buddhism is the third-largest religion in Bangladesh, practiced by 0.6% of the population. Buddhists are mainly from tribal groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and coastal Chittagong. Christianity is the fourth-largest religion, with 0.3% of the population following it, mainly among a small Bengali Christian minority. About 0.1% of the population practices other religions or identifies as irreligious.

Education

The constitution of Bangladesh mandates free and compulsory education for all children. The Ministry of Education oversees education in the country. The Ministry of Primary and Mass Education handles primary education and state-funded schools locally.

Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools. As of 2019, the literacy rate in Bangladesh is 74.7%. For males, it is 77.4%, and for females, it is 71.9%. The education system is three-tiered and heavily subsidized. The government runs many schools at primary, secondary, and higher secondary levels and supports many private schools.

In higher education, the government funds over 45 state universities through the University Grants Commission (UGC), established in 1973.

The education system has five levels: primary (grades 1-5), junior secondary (grades 6-8), secondary (grades 9-10), higher secondary (grades 11-12), and tertiary (university level). Students must pass public exams at each stage: Primary School Certificate (PSC) for grade 5, Junior School Certificate (JSC) for grade 8, Secondary School Certificate (SSC) for grade 10, and Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) for grade 12.

Universities in Bangladesh include public, private, and international types. There are 47 public universities, 105 private universities, and 2 international universities. The largest university by enrollment is Bangladesh National University, and the oldest is the University of Dhaka, founded in 1921. The Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) is known for engineering, while the University of Chittagong has the largest campus. Dhaka College, established in 1841, is the oldest institution for higher education. Medical education is provided by 29 medical colleges, all affiliated with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

In 2023, Bangladesh was ranked 105th in the Global Innovation Index.

Health

Bangladesh guarantees healthcare as a fundamental right for all its citizens through its constitution. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the main healthcare provider. It has two divisions: the Health Service Division and the Medical Education and Family Welfare Division.

Healthcare facilities in Bangladesh are improving but are still not up to standard. Despite economic growth and reduced poverty, the country faces a severe shortage of trained healthcare workers. Many village doctors have inadequate training and prescribe drugs improperly.

The government underfunds healthcare. In 2019, healthcare spending was only 2.48% of GDP. Government spending on healthcare was 18.63% of the total budget. Out-of-pocket expenses made up most of the healthcare costs, totaling 72.68%. Private health expenditure accounted for about 75% of total healthcare spending.

As of 2020, Bangladesh had only 5.3 doctors per 10,000 people, six physicians, and three nurses per 10,000 people. The number of hospital beds was eight per 10,000 people. Life expectancy at birth was 73 years, with 71 years for males and 75 years for females. The infant mortality rate was 24 per 1,000 live births, and the child mortality rate was 29 per 1,000 live births. Maternal mortality was high at 173 per 100,000 live births. Many Bangladeshis seek medical care abroad, especially in India, due to dissatisfaction with local healthcare.

The leading causes of death are coronary artery disease, stroke, and chronic respiratory disease, which account for 62% of deaths among men and 60% among women. Malnutrition remains a major issue, especially in rural areas. Over half of the population suffers from malnutrition. Severe acute malnutrition affects 450,000 children, while nearly 2 million children have moderate malnutrition. For children under five, 52% have anemia, 41% are stunted, 16% are wasted, and 36% are underweight. A quarter of women are underweight, about 15% have short stature, and over half suffer from anemia.

Architecture

Bangladesh has a rich architectural heritage dating back 2,500 years. Terracotta architecture is a standout feature. During the Pala Empire, the Pala School of Sculptural Art built grand structures like the Somapura Mahavihara. Islamic architecture began with the Bengal Sultanate, which blended local terracotta styles into mosque design.

The Sixty Dome Mosque is the largest medieval mosque in Bangladesh and showcases Turkic-Bengali architecture. When Bengal became part of the Mughal Empire, Mughal style replaced the older designs and influenced urban housing. The Kantajew Temple and Dhakeshwari Temple are notable examples of late medieval Hindu temple architecture.

During the British period, Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture emerged, mixing Indo-Islamic styles. The zamindar gentry built many palaces and mansions in this style, including Ahsan Manzil, Tajhat Palace, Dighapatia Palace, Puthia Rajbari, and Natore Rajbari.

Bengali vernacular architecture is known for pioneering the bungalow. Traditional village houses use natural materials like mud, straw, wood, and bamboo. Nowadays, many village bungalows are made of tin.

Muzharul Islam was a key figure in modern Bangladeshi architecture. He introduced global architects like Louis Kahn, who designed the National Parliament Complex in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar. Kahn’s designs, blending regional red brick with concrete and marble, are considered 20th-century masterpieces. Today, architects like Rafiq Azam continue to shape contemporary architecture, influenced by Islam and Kahn.

Visual arts and crafts

The history of art in Bangladesh dates back to the 3rd century BCE with terracotta sculptures. During the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty, significant Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist art developed. Islamic art began to evolve in the 14th century. The Bengal Sultanate is known for its unique domed mosques with complex niche pillars but no minarets. Under the Mughal Empire, the weaving of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin became famous, now recognized by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian and Western textile designs. The Mughal period also saw the use of ivory and brass in art. Pottery remains important in Bengali culture.

Modern art in Bangladesh started in the 1950s, led by Zainul Abedin. East Bengal developed its own modernist painting and sculpture styles, distinct from those in West Bengal. The Art Institute Dhaka has been a key center for visual art. Its Bengali New Year parade was listed as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2016.

Today, Bangladesh boasts many renowned painters like SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Shahabuddin Ahmed, and others. Novera Ahmed and Nitun Kundu were early pioneers in modernist sculpture. Recently, photography has gained popularity, with the Chobi Mela biennial being the largest photography festival in Asia.

Literature

Bengali literature has a rich history spanning over a thousand years. The earliest Bengali poetry is found in the Charyapadas. Sufi spiritualism greatly influenced Bengali Muslim writers. During the Bengal Sultanate, Bengali literature absorbed elements from Arabic and Persian works, with notable contributions from Maladhar Basu, Bipradas Pipilai, Vijay Gupta, and Yasoraj Khan. Early medieval poets like Chandidas made significant contributions, and Syed Alaol is known for his work in Middle Bengali literature.

The Bengal Renaissance played a key role in shaping modern Bengali literature, introducing novels, short stories, and science fiction. Rabindranath Tagore, often called the Bengali Shakespeare, was the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Kazi Nazrul Islam, a revolutionary poet, challenged colonialism and fascism. Begum Rokeya is celebrated as a pioneer feminist writer.

Other important figures from the Renaissance include Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. Syed Mujtaba Ali is known for his cosmopolitan view of Bengali culture. Jasimuddin was renowned for his pastoral poetry. In the 20th century, Shamsur Rahman and Al Mahmud were two of the most prominent Bengali poets. Modern poets like Farrukh Ahmad, Sufia Kamal, Syed Ali Ahsan, and others have made significant contributions to Bangladeshi poetry.

Ahmed Sofa is considered a leading Bangladeshi intellectual post-independence. Humayun Ahmed gained fame for his magical realism and science fiction. Other notable Bangladeshi fiction writers include Mir Mosharraf Hossain, Akhteruzzaman Elias, Alauddin Al Azad, and many more.

The Ekushey Book Fair and the Dhaka Literature Festival, organized by the Bangla Academy, are major literary events in South Asia.

Museums and libraries

Established in 1910, the Varendra Research Museum is Bangladesh’s oldest museum. It displays important artifacts from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, including Pala-Sena sculptures, Indus Valley artifacts, and manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian.

The Ahsan Manzil, once the home of the Nawab of Dhaka, now serves as a museum showcasing items from the British Raj.

The Tajhat Palace Museum in North Bengal features Hindu-Buddhist sculptures and Islamic manuscripts. The Mymensingh Museum displays antiques from Bengali aristocrats. The Ethnological Museum of Chittagong highlights the lives of various tribes in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh National Museum in Dhaka has a vast collection of antiquities. The Liberation War Museum documents the struggle for independence and the 1971 genocide.

During the Bengal Sultanate, the Hussain Shahi dynasty established royal libraries. In the 19th century, the Zamindar gentry set up libraries in each district of Bengal. By the start of World War II, this trend had continued.

In 1854, four major public libraries opened: Bogra Woodburn Library, Rangpur Public Library, Jessore Institute Public Library, and Barisal Public Library. Northbrook Hall Public Library in Dhaka was founded in 1882, followed by others, such as the Victoria Public Library (1901), Sirajganj Public Library (1882), and Rajshahi Public Library (1884). The Great Bengal Library Association was formed in 1925.

The Central Public Library of Dhaka opened in 1959, and the National Library of Bangladesh was established in 1972. The World Literature Centre, created by Abdullah Abu Sayeed, operates mobile libraries across Bangladesh and won the UNESCO Jon Amos Comenius Medal.

Women of Bangladesh

Though Bangladesh had several women in key political positions as of 2015, many women still face a patriarchal society where violence is common. Unlike in India and Pakistan, where women’s workforce participation decreases with higher education, the opposite is true in Bangladesh.

Bengal has a long history of feminist activism, starting in the 19th century. Figures like Begum Rokeya and Faizunnessa Chowdhurani worked to free Bengali Muslim women from purdah and promote girls’ education. During the British Raj, several women were elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly. The first women’s magazine, Begum, was published in 1948.

In 2008, 26% of women participated in the workforce. By March 2023, this number had risen to 42.68%. In 2022, women mainly worked in blue-collar jobs in the garment industry. They also work in agriculture, social services, healthcare, and education, with increasing numbers in white-collar positions.

Performing arts

Theatre in Bangladesh has a rich history dating back to the 4th century CE. It includes various forms such as narrative theatre, song and dance, puppet theatre, and performances with scroll paintings. Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre. Dance traditions encompass indigenous tribal dances, Bengali forms, and classical Indian dances like Kathak, Odissi, and Manipuri.

Bangladesh’s music is renowned for the Baul mystical tradition, recognized by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Fakir Lalon Shah popularized Baul music in the 18th century, and it remains highly influential today. Other lyric-based musical traditions include Gombhira, Bhatiali, and Bhawaiya. Folk music often features the ektara, a one-stringed instrument, along with the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. Bengali classical music includes Tagore songs and Nazrul Sangeet. The country has a strong tradition of Indian classical music with instruments like the sitar, tabla, sarod, and santoor. In the 1990s, Sabina Yasmin and Runa Laila were leading playback singers, while Ayub Bachchu and James popularized rock music in Bangladesh.

Media and cinema

The Bangladeshi press is diverse and privately owned, with over 200 newspapers in circulation. Bangladesh Betar is the state-run radio service. The BBC Bangla provides popular news and current affairs, and Bengali broadcasts from Voice of America also attract a large audience. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the state-owned network, with two main stations in Dhaka and Chittagong and a satellite service called BTV World. Additionally, around forty privately owned TV networks, including news channels, broadcast in the country. Media freedom is a concern due to government censorship and harassment of journalists.

Bangladesh’s cinema began in 1898 at the Crown Theatre in Dhaka. The Dhaka Nawab Family supported silent film productions in the 1920s and 1930s. The first full-length feature film, Last Kiss, was released in 1931. In 1956, Mukh O Mukhosh became the first feature film in East Pakistan. By the 1960s, Dhaka produced 25–30 films annually, increasing to 80–100 films a year by the 2000s. Although the film industry has had limited commercial success, it has produced notable independent filmmakers. Zahir Raihan, a prominent documentary maker, was assassinated in 1971. Tareque Masud, honored by FIPRESCI at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival for The Clay Bird, is celebrated as one of Bangladesh’s top directors. Other significant figures include Tanvir Mokammel, Mostofa Sarwar Farooki, Humayun Ahmed, Alamgir Kabir, Chashi Nazrul Islam, and Sohanur Rahman Sohan. Sohan’s film Ananta Bhalobasha introduced Shakib Khan, now a major superstar. Bangladesh has a vibrant film society culture, starting in Dhaka in 1963. Today, around 40 film societies operate across the country, including the Rainbow Film Society, Children’s Film Society, Moviyana Film Society, and Dhaka University Film Society. The Federation of Film Societies of Bangladesh oversees this movement.

Textiles

The Nakshi Kantha is an ancient embroidery tradition from eastern Bengal (Bangladesh). It is used to create intricate quilts. The sari is the national dress for women in Bangladesh. During the Mughal era, Dhaka was famous for its high-quality muslin saris and the renowned Dhakai and Jamdani fabrics. UNESCO has recognized Jamdani weaving as a masterpiece of intangible cultural heritage. Bangladesh also produces Rajshahi silk.

Women in Bangladesh also wear the shalwar kameez, and in cities, some opt for Western clothing. Men traditionally wear the kurta and sherwani, while the lungi and dhoti are common in casual settings. For formal occasions, men wear tailored suits and neckties.

The handloom industry meets 60–65% of the country’s clothing needs. The Bengali fashion industry has grown, with Aarong becoming one of South Asia’s top ethnic wear brands. The textile industry in Bangladesh supports major international brands and promotes local production of modern Western attire. Bangladesh is the second-largest garment exporter in the world. Notable Bangladeshi fashion designer Bibi Russell has gained international fame for her “Fashion for Development” shows.

Cuisine

Bangladeshi cuisine is diverse and influenced by its geography and climate. It shares many dishes with West Bengal, India. The staple food is white rice, which is usually paired with fish. Leafy vegetables, potatoes, gourds, and lentils are also essential. Common dishes include curries made from beef, mutton, chicken, and duck, along with bhortas (mashed vegetables), bhajis (stir-fried vegetables), and tarkaris (curried vegetables). Mughal-influenced dishes like kormas, biryanis, and pulaos are also popular.

Bangladeshi cooking uses a variety of spices, including turmeric, fenugreek, nigella, coriander, anise, cardamom, and chili powder. A famous spice mix is panch phoron. Common condiments and herbs include red onions, green chilies, garlic, ginger, cilantro, and mint. Coconut milk, mustard paste, mustard seeds, mustard oil, ghee, pickles, and chutneys are frequently used.

Fish is a major source of protein in Bangladesh due to its river system. Hilsa, the national fish, is very popular, with dishes like shorshe ilish. Other commonly eaten fish include rohu, pangas, and tilapia. Shrimp and dried fish are also important, with chingri malai curry being a famous shrimp dish. In Chittagong, kala bhuna and mezban gosht (a spicy beef curry) are well-known. Sylhet uses shatkora lemons in dishes like beef hatkora. Bamboo shoots are popular among the tribal communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, and Khulna is known for its use of chui jhal (piper chaba) in meat dishes.

Bangladesh also offers a wide range of desserts, including rôshogolla, roshmalai, chomchom, sondesh, mishti doi, kalojaam, and jilapi. Pithas, traditional boiled desserts made with rice or fruits, are common. Halwa and shemai (a type of vermicelli) are popular during religious festivals. Ruti, naan, paratha, luchi, and bakarkhani are the main local breads. Hot milk tea is the most popular drink, often enjoyed during social gatherings. Other traditional beverages include borhani, mattha, and lassi. Kebabs, such as seekh kebab, chapli kebab, shami kebab, chicken tikka, and shashlik, are widely enjoyed. Street foods like chotpoti, jhal muri, shingara, samosa, and fuchka are also popular.

Holidays and festivals

Pahela Baishakh, the Bengali New Year, is the biggest festival in Bengali culture. It celebrates the simpler, rural roots of Bengal and does not carry specific religious or gift-giving traditions. This makes it unique among major holidays in Bangladesh. Other key cultural festivals include Nabonno and Poush Parbon, which are Bengali harvest festivals.

Bangladesh also celebrates major religious festivals from various faiths. Muslim festivals like Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Mawlid, Muharram, Chand Raat, and Shab-e-Barat are widely observed. Hindu festivals such as Durga Puja, Janmashtami, and Rath Yatra are also significant. Buddha Purnima, marking Gautama Buddha’s birth, and Christmas are celebrated by Buddhists and Christians, respectively. The two Eids are especially notable for their extended public holidays, allowing families to celebrate together away from the city.

National holidays include Language Movement Day on 21 February, which UNESCO declared as International Mother Language Day in 1999. On this day, people gather at the Shaheed Minar in Dhaka to honor the heroes of the Bengali Language Movement. Independence Day and Victory Day are also observed with gatherings at the National Martyrs’ Memorial to remember the heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War.

Sports

In rural Bangladesh, traditional sports like Kabaddi, Boli Khela, Lathi Khela, and Nouka Baich are still popular. Kabaddi is the national sport. However, cricket is the most popular sport in the country. The national cricket team first competed in the Cricket World Cup in 1999 and gained Test status the following year. Bangladesh reached the quarter-finals of the 2015 Cricket World Cup, the semi-finals of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy, and the finals of the Asia Cup in 2012, 2016, and 2018. Shakib Al Hasan is celebrated as one of cricket’s greatest all-rounders and a top Bangladeshi sportsman. On 9 February 2020, the Bangladesh youth national cricket team won the Under-19 Cricket World Cup in South Africa, marking Bangladesh’s first World Cup victory. Additionally, the Bangladesh women’s national cricket team won the 2018 Women’s Twenty20 Asia Cup by defeating India.

Football is also a major sport in Bangladesh, though cricket has overshadowed it in recent years. The Shadhin Bangla Team, which played friendly matches in India during the 1971 Liberation War, was the first national football team. On 25 July 1971, the team’s captain, Zakaria Pintoo, was the first to hoist the Bangladesh flag on foreign soil. After independence, the national football team competed in the AFC Asian Cup in 1980. Notable football achievements include winning the 2003 SAFF Gold Cup and the 1999 South Asian Games. The women’s national football team won the 2022 SAFF Women’s Championship.

Archers Ety Khatun and Roman Sana excelled in the 2019 South Asian Games, winning all 10 archery events. Bangladesh also has a strong chess presence with five grandmasters, including Niaz Murshed, the first grandmaster in South Asia. In 2010, Musa Ibrahim became the first Bangladeshi to climb Mount Everest. Wasfia Nazreen is the first Bangladeshi to climb all Seven Summits.

Bangladesh hosts several international sporting events. It has held the Bangabandhu Cup, the South Asian Games multiple times, and co-hosted the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011 with India and Sri Lanka. Bangladesh also hosted the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 and the Cricket Asia Cup in 2000, 2012, 2014, and 2016. Additionally, it hosted the 1985 Men’s Hockey Asia Cup.